Evolution Secret of the Haute Couture World

In some typical individuals mind, they probably won't recognize what the word â€Å"Haute Couture† implies on the grounds that they are costly, lavish and select. High fashion is entirely characterized as â€Å"high sewing†, high fashion has advanced from the days when it was developed by the Chambre Syndicale de la Confection et de la couture pour Dames et fillettes which means worker's organization room of garments industry and the crease for women and little youngsters in 1868. (Deborah Bee, Couture in the 21th century, 2010:p7). It is about the fitting the making of elite, carefully assembled pieces of clothing, after a progression of fittings, to the most elevated conceivable norm. In the accompanying parts, it will show the insider facts, history of the Haute Couture world, the contemporary business running activity privileged insights and the future expectation of this specialty extravagance showcase by research, interviews from the individuals purchasing the dress just as the creators themselves. History and the beginning of high fashion Charles Frederick Worth (1826-95),the first â€Å"King of Couture†. His styles rules European blue-blooded society in the mid-nineteenth century. Worth was a Paris-based couturier that transformed dressmaking into a work of art. He planned breathtaking outfits celebrated for their intensely designed silks, sumptuous decoration and the creative utilization of textures. They became superficial points of interest and elegant customers from over the world rushed to his salon. â€Å"We have Charles Worth to thank for beginning it all†, said John Galliano 2010 The arrangement of high fashion developed that adhered to certain unbending rules,set set up by the chamber Syndicale de la Haute Couture Parisienne, established in Paris in 1868. It turned into the daily schedule for the leader of a style house to choose outlines from a bank of independent creators. At an outure house’s occasional introduction Spring/Summer in Autumn/Winter in July which at any rate 50 outfits were shoen to a crowd of people comprised of clients and approved purchasers. The structures were then compensated for the customers or sold as examples, either in material or paper. The visual look of the old couture This is the primary structure of how the early couture resembled. The top part was called bodices and the base was called confine crinoline. Photographs taken in V&A without anyone else With the bases underneath, astounding articles of clothing can be delivered. The left one was planned by Charles Worth in 1881, it was made by glossy silk, weaved with silk, chenille and dots, cut with machine trim. The correct one was planned by Jean Patou (1880-1936) in 1932-4. It was make bu tulle weaved with dabs. *Photos taken in V&A wit hout anyone else The Couture business in the early age High style toward the start of the twentieth century was lavish and sumptuous, an ever increasing number of architects were intrigued to step into the couture business. The most huge couturiers notable until these days are Christian Dior, Chanel, Lanvin, YSL and Givenchy. Thinking back to the 20s, the most stunning pre-WWI design explanation originated from Coco Chanel, with her lively pattern. Having built up couture salons in Paris and the shoreline resorts of Deauville and Biarritz, she made lightweight garments without any linings, utilized delicate pullover for cardigans and sweaters. Chanel’s sway on couture can't be thought little of as in 1920, she made a rage for wide-legged pants and matelot tops. Christian Dior was doing the fitting with the customer Talented couturier, for example, Christobal Balenciaga as the Spanish papers reported† ladies from everywhere throughout the world cross outskirts to purchase his manifestations during the war years. Be that as it may, in 1947 the style world was given an unrest. The â€Å"new look† Dior’s made in his presentation assortment was beginning stage of a brilliant time o f couture on the global design scene. Little, corseted abdomens were emphasizd with full, layered skirts and cushioning over the hips, while coats and outfits were sliced to cause to notice the decollete. Going onwards, Hubert de Givenchy opened up a couture house in 1952. What was so well known about Givenchy was he has a proceed with relationship with Audrey Hepburn and Givenchy transformed her into a style symbol and which made Givenchy decided a significant number of the key patterns during the 50s. After decades, the first architects continued dropping and made their first partners, for example, Yves Mathieu-Saint-Laurent, Karl Lagerfeld, John Galliano and Alexander McQueen and more proceed with the inheritance of Couture. The Haute Couture World of the 21st Century. While the couture showcase moves to the new century, there are increasingly blended present day and different century’s components have been utilized in a couture assortment. What pitiful is the entire business has been limited from 106 of every 1946 to just 12 in the most recent Haute Couture design show of Spring/Summer 2011. Albeit a portion of the enormous brands which used to create remarkable, for example, Lanvin and YSL have halted to take part in ongoing seasons’ couture appears, the remainder of them and some new brands are working admirably. These days, there are really a private couture club individuals which just have 200 individuals on the planet as the cost of the outfits are too costly which just the truly rich ladies can manage the cost of the cost. As per the video â€Å"The mystery universe of haute couture†, it guarantees that couture is the most costly garments for ladies to purchase and one of the purchaser said that â€Å"Couture are exceptionally light these days like the second skin which fit on body very perfectly†. Up to this point, Paris is as yet the head quarter of Haute Couture in light of the fact that the greater part of the well known couture brands, for example, Chanel, Jean Paul Gautier and Christian Dior are situated in Paris. With respect to completely costly cost of the couture, why ladies despite everything ready to pay US$400,000 to purchase a dress? The ex-directrice in 1971-2002 of YSL, Baroness Helene de Ludighauser said it is a direct result of the quality, the valid justification of buying the sumptuous old couture is on the grounds that the hand works are remarkable. How the individuals and purchaser buy the couture? As to cause the club individuals to feel more leaving and anticipating the couture appear, the topic of each brand is the â€Å"top secret†. â€Å"Focus religion kind of development to make couture† said by Ralph Rucci, an American planner. By dealing with the first column of the sits, the PR of the organization referenced that it is really a hard choice however as they don't have to advance their couture so most need would provide for those club individuals since they are the one going to buy the couture so they need to regard them. After each style show, media and those purchasers and club individuals would hurry to the behind the stage so as to locate an opportunity to converse with the originator or knowing somebody as they would really be the companions of the creators. High fashion are not selling in open stores however they will be prepared in the stores following day after the show. The significant strategy of purchasing the couture is to make an arrangement, at that point the store aides would help you on acquainting the pieces of clothing and with pick which looks better in explicit events. There is an intriguing certainty that if the client body size can fit with the first piece of clothing, the client will have a 30% off rebate while others have to gauge the size of the bodies to roll out certain improvements to look best on clients. There is another club rule of selling couture which is there are no sticker price on the pieces of clothing. Additionally, the creators themselves sometimes truly speak with the client as John Galliano said â€Å"Part of the secret of couture is by not very associating with their client. † (The mystery universe of haute couture,2009, youtube) Although the Haute Couture is extremely costly, well off ladies would think it is the venture of workmanship for entire life. Contemporary Couturiers brands Analysis. From the most recent period of Haute Couture which is the Spring/Summer 2011, there are 12 couturiers in all out which is Alexis Mabille, Bouchra Jarra, Chanel, Christian Dior, Giogio Armani Prive, Givenchy, House of Worth, Iris van Herpen, Jean Paul Gaultier, Elie Saab, Stephan Rollan and Valentino (Vogue). In all honesty talking some of them probably won't be so wearable above all else might be a direct result of the ideas, the plans, the styles or even the hues. Betsy Bloomingdale’s spouse has been once approached her to purchase anything she needs for Christian Dior in light of the fact that Betsy is a major devotee of Christian Dior. Obviously there would be in every case some reliable fans, for example, Carroll Petrie, a Christian Dior couture fan, â€Å"I couldn’t accept what he had finished with texture, it is exceptional! † Members would consistently have their preferred architects however through the exploration, you will locate the most every now and again show up in those couture club members’ closet is the Chanel’s as their outfits are progressively wearable yet nice. Both Chanel and Christian Dior are astounding on doing very surprising styles of couture yet both so well known, so there are a few people depict Dior’s couture as Opera and Chanel’s couture as melodic. Coco Chanel and Christian Dior were totally bosses of couture. They caught both extravagance and polish in the public’s psyche and left a solid heritage. Individuals keep on alluding to them even decades later. † From Maria Grazia Chiuri and Pier Paolo Piccioli, imaginative executives of Valentino. (Valentino, Couture in the 21th century, 2010:p131) After referencing the attributes of Chanel, the drama like Christian Dior is really have an explanation of why their couture typically progressively overstated however extremely rich and lavish simultaneously. We can not pass up a great opportunity the most innovative John Galliano, the ex-imaginative executive of Christian Dior, he had once worked in an auditorium for quite a long time that is the reason in his previous assortments the pieces of clothing are brimming with stories and the structures are somewhat theater like. So as the runway appear, the models are recounting stories which can e

Poly

Theoretical It is anticipated that poly-substance misuse is the significant reason for despondency in light of the fact that there are high possibilities that a discouraged individual is a successive client of poly-substances. Poly-substance misuse powers individuals to surrender their social jobs, which lead to melancholy. This paper takes a gander at the manners by which poly-substance misuse is identified with depression.Advertising We will compose a custom research paper test on Poly-Substance Abuse in Adolescent Males with Depression explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More The paper takes a gander at the manner by which poly-substance misuse achieves wretchedness in immature guys. The exposition proposes a quantitative report that would be basic in get-together applicable information identified with the connection among despondency and medication misuse. In the ensuing segment, the proposition recommends an information investigation technique that utilizes insight s Introduction Poly-substance maltreatment in youthful guys with discouragement is regular in numerous social orders. Winters and Latimer (2004) led an investigation, which set up that poly-substance misuse influences every single ethnic gathering implying that it doesn't influence just certain social groupings. This quantitative examination centers around the connection between poly-substance maltreatment in pre-adult guys and sorrow. By definition, poly-substance misuse alludes to the designed admission of a substance (sedate) that is normally taken either in enormous or little amounts. The substance can influence the conduct and activities of people. The substance is generally utilized illicitly utilizing unapproved techniques implying that it would change the mentality of the person. It ought to be noticed that poly-substance misuse isn't limited to those that change the state of mind of the individual or those that initiate the mental procedures. Competitors are generally answe red to utilizing drugs that invigorate their muscles and give them extra vitality. This is likewise viewed as medication misuse since it changes the working of the body and the mind, which influences the mental procedures. Ksir (2002) saw that the utilization of unlawful medications, for example, opiates, energizers, and depressants are a portion of the instances of poly-substance misuse. Poly-substance misuse is straightforwardly identified with sorrow in light of the fact that the individuals who use drugs are consistently hopeless when contrasted with non-clients of medications. Individuals endure genuinely because of the admission of unlawful medications. For example, competitors are generally grabbed their awards because of doubt of poly-substance misuse. Research holes in writing, which is identified with the connection between substance misuse and discouragement, exist. Issue Statement In human life, there are minutes that an individual feels befuddled and dismal. This is an ordinary inclination, yet its steadiness is viewed as an indication of misery. Sorrow happens when a male juvenile loses something that he esteems such a great amount in his life. In some cases, an immature could be discouraged in the wake of experiencing an upsetting occasion or event.Advertising Looking for examine paper on brain science? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More At times, sadness influences the ordinary existence of the juvenile male since he can't execute his obligations in a manner that befits him. This may prompt a mental issue alluded to as the significant burdensome issue (MDD), likewise alluded to as clinical wretchedness. Consequently, there is need of setting up the degree at which poly-substance misuse is identified with discouragement. Plainly immature guys take part in poly-substance misuse due to various reasons. Wretchedness is the significant reason in light of the fact that many feel disappointed to a degree of taking part in poly-substance maltreatment as a method of lessening pressure. Mission statement various examinations have been directed to find out the connection between poly-substance misuse and wretchedness. Each investigation has been concentrating on specific gatherings, contingent upon the decision of the scientist. In this proposition, the impacts of poly-substance maltreatment in juvenile guys would be assessed. The primary motivation behind the proposition is to recommend an applicable technique that would accomplish wanted outcomes. The proposition gives a portion of the articles that would be basic in understanding the connection between poly-substance misuse and melancholy in immature guys. Aside from recommending a portion of the articles in the writing audit area, the proposition recommends a quantitative technique that will use the polls in social event pertinent information. The utilization of poll empowers the scientist to gather sufficient data that is pertinent to the investigation. In doing this, the proposition looks to respond to various inquiries, including coming up next: Is poly-substance misuse the main source of sadness among male young people? Whatever degree does substance misuse impact the conduct of an individual What are a portion of the substances that the pre-adult guys regularly misuse Hypothesis Male young people experience different difficulties, one of them being poly-substance misuse, which influences their conduct and disposition. Poly-substance misuse is a significant reason for melancholy in juvenile guys on the grounds that it influences their mental and social procedures. This causes gloom on the grounds that the pre-adult probably won't have the option to accomplish the normal outcomes inferable from poly-substance misuse. Writing audit Depression is the most critical perspective that makes youthful guys to enjoy poly-substance misuse. Male youths express their downturn in different manners. Poly-substa nce misuse brings down an individual’s level of judgment making the person in question to enjoy unsafe practices, for example, pre-marriage sex or in any event, turning out to be gay a perspective that builds their hazard to infections, for example, HIV/AIDS among others.Advertising We will compose a custom research paper test on Poly-Substance Abuse in Adolescent Males with Depression explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More One of the examinations that Boys, Marsden, and Strang directed in 2000 reasoned that poly-substance misuse tremendously affects the life of youthful guys. The investigation used a snowball inspecting strategy to reach at the resolution. The respondents noticed that a portion of the generally manhandled substances incorporate liquor, cannabis, and cocaine. Most of the members affirmed that they had really used the above substances to satisfy their deliberate substance use capacities. In another investigation led by Huba and Lisa (2000), it was built up that poly-substance misuse builds the danger of contracting HIV/AIDS. In their examination, youthful Hispanic guys were bound to manhandle poly-substances while the Native American females were inclined to poly-substance misuse. Additionally, the investigation built up that the individuals who misuse drugs are probably going to participate in unprotected sex, which inclines them to the dangers of contracting HIV. It is critical that their examination results are illustrative of discoveries in clinical gay-indiscriminate male young people and may not hold for a similar gathering of male teenagers in the general cultural setting. Furthermore, extraordinary ethnic gatherings display changing frequencies of the association of discouraged pre-adult young men in poly-substance misuse. This was set up through an examination completed by Winters and Latimer (2004) in their endeavor to discover the connection among Alcohol and different medications manhandled in juvenile young m en from various ethnic gatherings in the U.S. Poulin (2004) and different researchers examined the connection among misery and poly-substance maltreatment in male young people in the four Atlantic areas of Canada most definitely. Poulin’s test comprised of 12,771 understudies in both junior and secondary schools of the state funded schools in the four regions. They discovered that youthful guys were reliably at a higher danger of burdensome side effects, burdensome scatters since they will in general disguise their issues more than others do. As indicated by their examination, the commonness of raised side effects among male young people was 8.6% while that of the guys was 2.6%. Nonetheless, male youths are at a more serious danger of substance use issue than the immature females. Poulin (2004) discovered that various substances are utilized at various rates among male teenagers with sadness. The discoveries were like those of Nolen-Hoeksema’s (2001) who completed an i nvestigation to portray how the various sexual orientations have various encounters most definitely. They distinguished the greater part of the mishandled substances among male young people. They incorporate liquor, cigarettes, and cannabis.Advertising Searching for look into paper on brain science? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Find out More They related the expanded utilization of these substances with an expanding likelihood of burdensome issue. They likewise noticed that smoking was the least controllable substance among the guys. They built up that burdensome side effects and confusion are the significant indicators of smoking take-up in puberty as well as in adulthood. Beginning stage smoking represents a more serious hazard for extreme sorrow side effects than later beginning smoking. Then again, cannabis misuse was related with guys with had a background marked by wretchedness issue. An approximated 16% of the individuals who had utilized cannabis at any rate once in their life were determined to have melancholy contrasted with 6% of the male teenagers who had never utilized cannabis. They likewise discovered that the greater part of the understudies had melancholy indications while others previously had sadness issue however they had not gotten a lot of help structure the general public. Just 10.3% revealed that they had gotten help for discouragement. Their discoveries show that for the various degrees of sadness just 12% of the understudies with fairly raised burdensome side effects had gotten help so was 22% of the understudies who had exceptionally raised burdensome side effects. Major depre

Argumentative Math Essay Topics

Argumentative Math Essay TopicsArgumentative math essay topics are important. They show the student that he or she understands the need for planning and organizing material. The topics should include a broad range of subjects. As the student is encouraged to put his or her own ideas into action, it is easier to work on the topics in short bursts of time.Some examples of interesting argumentative math essay topics include but are not limited to: human growth, wars, politics, economic system, relationships, math, biology, and social systems. As students understand the concepts presented in these topics, they begin to see the world from a different perspective. While some students may still think that things are like in the old days, others are ready to think and plan differently. It is very likely that, as the student gets more comfortable with mathematics, he or she will also begin to take on more advanced math problems.The author has found that it is not enough to do one or two of th ese topics before wrapping up the assignment. There must be a combination of topics completed and covered as a whole. Students need to learn about how to look at math problems and how to be more efficient with their work. This also teaches them how to organize and use math information in the course of their lives.The subject matter should also be looked at from different perspectives so that each student is presented with new knowledge. Each topic will give students a different angle on how math should be learned. Some topics could include: how to think critically, improve problem solving skills, and learn to communicate through math problems. It is also a great way to introduce students to different ways of putting together different types of information.In the case of introduction topics, students should be taught to look at problem solving approaches. This should be done as students learn to learn in order to tackle more difficult math problems. It is important that these topics be approached as a whole so that the student is encouraged to give each idea a chance to be tested. By doing this, the student is more likely to think about different solutions in different ways and make an educated guess on what will work.Birthdays, weddings, and funerals are all topics that are commonly used as introduction topics. These topics have different perspectives and can get people to look at math in a different way. It is important that each of these topics is treated in this manner. The student is encouraged to develop more advanced mathematical concepts. The student should then be asked to give feedback on the assignments to prove that they understand the material presented.Many students agree that they would like to write their assignments for essays for different reasons. Some want to have fun writing an essay. Others may be interested in developing a plan for using their lessons and concepts. Others may want to have an overall understanding of the material they are learning.Students should be encouraged to complete problems that are not given as often as questions are. When they are given, they should be able to answer them. The writer's notes can be used to document the process so that the student is more likely to come back to the problem when they want to have more information.

My First Encounters With Writing - 921 Words

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I started to think that maybe writing was my gift, and that I just naturally exce lled at it. As a junior in high school, I entered a writing workshop and always scored a 97 or above on any paper; except, despite the success, I still had not discovered my own voice. All the writing I had ever done was aimed towards formatting and facts rather than my own thoughts. It wasn’t until this year at Truman that I was introduced to the writer inside me. I have finally learned how to integrate my own voice into my writing while still managing to implement facts and information. The firstShow MoreRelatedLessons Learned Paper1448 Words   |  6 PagesLearned Paper Connecting with a group of doctoral students for the first residency is very frightening. Several students admitted to having feelings of misperception, worry, or uncertainty. 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Keep a Log for Documenting Communication With Parents

Improving The Economy Is Difficult For All Individuals Essay

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Roosevelt956 Words   |  4 PagesDuring the 1920s, in the U.S. economy, stock prices were rapidly rising. Many people saw this as an opportunity to inv est their money into the market, and multiply their cash. Despite warnings of a crash in the market, people kept on using their money – even taking out loans- to invest into the rapidly increasing market. Nevertheless, on October 29, 1929 the stock exchange crashed, and caused panic throughout the nation. This began an economic downturn that placed pressure on the President of the

The Millers Tale Essay Example For Students

The Millers Tale Essay By examining the different elements of humour in The Millers Tale, show how Chaucer makes the comic tale work on different levels.  The principal reason for the vast difference in style of humour in The Millers Tale is derived from the fact that there was such a vast audience that Chaucer was catering for when writing these tales. There would have been great difference in the levels of intellect in the audience, so Chaucer needed to present a large degree of difference in the humour in order to appeal to the different types of audience. Essentially, there are two platforms from which the varying degrees of humour are delivered, and each caters for a different type of audience. One is Chaucer, the intellectual with a higher level of humour who presents the tale to us, and the Miller, the janglere and goliardeys who tells us the tale. We know there is a distinct difference between the two and the type of humour they present to us from when Chaucer sets himself apart from the Miller and his tale in The Millers Prologue, and apologises for what is to be said, Aviseth yow, and put me out of blame; And eek men shal nat maken ernest of game. It is thus obvious to the audience that the tale will contain varying types of humour, catering for its varied audience. There is the higher level humour presented to us through Chaucers presentation of the tale, and one example of this more intellectual humour is the literary parody in which form The Millers Tale is presented to us. The Millers Tale parodies the theme of courtly love, as it imitates generic conventions of a typical courtly love tale (such as its predecessor The Knights Tale). For example there is the whole mockery of the presentation of Alison, who would typically be the courtly lady, but through the description she is presented more like a country wench, the description of her is far from a chaste, virginal one we would expect, She was a primerole, a piggesnie, For any lord to leggen in his bedde, Or yet for any good yeman to wedde. There is also the example of Absolon and his ridiculous portrayal as a courtly lover vowing for the lady, although he would be better suited as the heroine! This is shown through the ridiculous portrayal of him, where he is given qualities such as, Crul was his heer, and as the gold it shoon, his eyen greye as goos, and he song som time a loud quinible. These qualities would be more apt to that of a courtly heroine, and the general nonsensical portrait of him as a courtly gentleman is a parody in itself. These literary parodies would only been appreciated by more intellectual audience, as it relies on certain previous knowledge of the generic conventions of courtly love tales and the humour is derived from ridiculing them. Another humorous feature, which would generally be appreciated only by the more intellectual audience, is the literary irony. For example the epithets used to describe a character throughout, for example hende Nicholas, although by the end, due to events in the narrative, we infer a change in meaning on the word. For example, hende Nicholas at the start of the tale suggests a useful, courteous and kind gentleman to John, but ironically by the end it suggests Nicholas skilful, lustful and successful advances to Alison. This shifting of nuances creates an ironic tone as the exact same language changes the audiences inference of what is being said, especially in the case of hende Nicholas. .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416 , .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416 .postImageUrl , .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416 , .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416:hover , .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416:visited , .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416:active { border:0!important; } .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416:active , .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416 .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u993ec7603368510cc05b8198a1024416:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Growth after Loss EssayThe tale is full of dramatic ironic moments, which would appeal to a wider audience, not just the more intelligent audience; these are based on events that occur in the narrative so little previous knowledge of generic conventions or a high grasp of linguistic knowledge is required on the audiences part, simply a reasonably close following to the narrative. This is why this humour opens up the comedy of the tale to a wider audience. Moments of real dramatic irony in the tale include Alisons response to Nicholas initial advances, I wol nat kisse thee, by my fey! This turns out to be highly ironic as Nicholas obtains his sexual desires only soon after this idle threat of chastity. Another, more humorous example of this arises from Nicholas duping of John, through heavily ironic flattery to John, Thou art so wys, it needeth thee nat teche. This is humorous in its irony, as Nicholas has just previously told John what to do exactly and how to do it; the fact that sely John sees himself as intelligent would be humorous to a wide audience. This seemingly intelligent level of humour stands alongside the extremely simple slapstick, almost visual (through language and imagery) type of humour we are given through the platform of the Miller. This would be more appealing to the less intelligent audience, as this bawdy, slapstick humour requires little or no thought. For example, the incident in which Absolon pokes Nicholas amidde his ers with the hoote koulter. This coarse slapstick humour is included by Chaucer through the Miller in order to please the less intelligent audience, this would be regarded somewhat as cheap thrills to a modern audience. There is also the type of humour that comes from mocking and laughing at the characters. Again this level of humour would appeal equally to a less intelligent audience, as it doesnt rely on previous audience knowledge; and a more intelligent audience who appreciate the fabliau genre of the tale. This form of humour is particularly effective in the tale, as we dont form a strong empathetic or sympathetic bond with any of the characters. One of the reasons for this is because we are told the tale in the 3rd person, so we never get a chance to become close or truly empathise with them, unlike if the tale was in the first person. Another reason is the nature of the tale; the fabliau genre of the tale is typically the same normal narrative with the same type of characters (ie the cuckhold, the student) so its hard to empathise with a tale with typical generic conventions, such as fabliaux tales. Examples of this laugh at characters humour includes the general mocking of Absolon in general and his ridiculous nature and love-longinge. Also, the audience laughs at John as he is cuckholded, and Nick is also the butt of jokes when he gets his painful comeuppance from Absolon, And Nicholas is scalded in the towte. The theme of crudeness and innuendo is also a form of humour that would typically be appreciated by the less intelligent audience, and this features frequently in the tale through the platform of the Miller. The tale is littered with coarse and sexual language, the use of the word queynte at the end of successive lines with very different meanings. This crudeness would be welcomed with shocked hilarity to the audience of the day. The less intelligent, more common audience would generally have appreciated the coarse and vulgar language more. In conclusion, it is evident that there is a vast variety of humour in the tale, which appeals to the vast audience. These are essentially given to us through two platforms, the Miller and Chaucer, the Miller usually providing laughs for a less intelligent audience whereas Chaucer provides humour for a more intelligent audience. For some of the humour to work, it relies on an attentive audience, for example the more intellectual humour such as the literary parody and the irony, it expects some previous knowledge in order for it to be appreciated; however, some of the crude slapstick humour only requires a loose following of the narrative. The vast type of humour all works on different levels in order to appeal to great diversity in the audience, so there is humour for everyone in this tale.

Supply Chain Management in Hospitals and H1N1 Crisis in KSA A Report

Introduction In recent years, the provision of products and services required by customers in KSA has been inefficient especially in hospitals. This means that there is need for the introduction of supply chain management and logistics in these hospitals. This report will look at supply chain management within the context of H1N1 crisis in KSA. To this end, the author will look at SCM in hospitals and how this could have managed the crisis.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Supply Chain Management in Hospitals and H1N1 Crisis in KSA: A specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Thesis: Supply chain management in hospitals could have been used to effectively address the H1N1 crisis in KSA. Conclusion When customer’s demands increase the focus is on the supply chain managers. The process of improving the supply chain management system in hospitals has started on a poor note in Saudi Arabia and this is affecting the cou ntry in many ways. H1N1 Crisis in KSA Reporting on the First Case The first case of H1N1 in KSA was reported on 3rd June 2008 on a tourist from the Philippines. Each day, there are new infections in KSA despite the fact that most countries in the world have been able to overcome the epidemic. By the end of 2009, Saudi authorities had confirmed 15850 cases of H1N1 infections in the country (Almazroa, Memish Alwadey, 2010). The number of recorded deaths as a result of the virus stood at 124 (Almazroa et al., 2010). This means that there must be something unique about KSA which makes it report such cases when other countries in the world are reporting cases of success in fighting the epidemic. Predisposing Factors to H1N1 in KSA It is believed that there is inadequate or inaccurate information available regarding this epidemic. This being the case, there has been an increase in the spread of the disease. This is for example given the fact that women wearing a veil do not usually wear a gas mask to avoid contracting the virus. Given the fact that Saudi Arabia is the famous Hajj destination, it becomes clear that the issue of endemics such as H1N1 cannot be taken lightly considering that Hajj attracts many people from different parts of the world (Almazroa et al., 2010). Another factor which puts the country at risk of H1N1 is the fact that the country attracts a huge number of expatriates from different parts of the world (Almazroa et al., 2010)Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In countries such as the United States of America, the first strategy adopted in handling the H1N1 crisis was reducing the impacts the disease had on the nation. However, the case is different in Saudi Arabia given the lack of vaccines, delay in treatment, enough hospital beds, masks and other protective gear. Apparently, the pharmaceutical industry could not provide the hospitals with enough vaccines for the whole population due to inadequate supply. The poor supply chain system in the hospitals is to blame for the inability to provide such services, making Saudi Arabia unable to respond to the epidemic effectively. Just before Hajj, Saudi Arabian authorities were trying to find a way to prevent the spread of the pandemic. They decided that the only way to overcome this was to ban some people from participating in the pilgrimage. These were groups such as children and senior citizens. The authorities also decided that the administration of flu vaccines and the use of protective gears like masks was another way to deal with the crisis. Application of SCM in Hospitals During the H1N1 Crisis Inefficiencies in the Hospital’s Supply Chain Management Supply chain management is a difficult and complicated undertaking to any contemporary organization (Chandra Grabis, 2007: p. 17). It can be defined as the â€Å"†¦..coordination (and management) of busi nesses and processes involved in producing and delivering a product or service† (Arizona State University [Arizona], 2010: p.8). Parray Kadri (2007) refers to a hospital supply chain management as â€Å"†¦..a set of approaches to efficiently integrate suppliers or vendors, transport and hospital services to achieve total quality management in health care services† (p.3). This is by optimizing the utilization of the resources in the hospitals. SCM in hospitals plays a significant role when it comes to dealing with H1N1 crisis especially in the supply of vaccines, beds, protective gear and therapeutic drugs. This is one major way of dealing with the crisis yet in KSA the supply of vaccines is inadequate due to inefficiencies in the supply chain management system. This is significant considering the fact that many towns in KSA are characterized by overpopulation thus high vulnerability of these communities as far as H1N1 is concerned. Take for example the case of Haj j where more than 2 million pilgrims are gathered in a tiny geographical area (Almazroa et al., 2010).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Supply Chain Management in Hospitals and H1N1 Crisis in KSA: A specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Lack of Modern Technology There is also the need for supply chain management systems in hospitals to use modern technology to make the process of importing vaccines more efficient. This will ensure that the process of packaging and transporting the vaccines is more efficient than it is now. The adoption of modern technology will ensure that the vaccines reach the consumers in time. For instance, more vaccines should be available during Hajj and other festivities. This can be made possible if the hospitals use modern technology in their SCM and pay attention to the principles of SCM discussed below. This will include computerizing the whole process of procuring and distributing goods a nd services to hospitals. These are goods like beds, vaccines and other drugs and also importation of trained personnel like doctors who are scarce in KSA. DeScioli (2001: p12) proposes the use of Automated Point of Use System (APU) in computerizing HSCM. Such a system is composed of a device that is placed in various wards from where the practitioners are able to key in the supplies they need. This can be adopted in KSA where the doctors and nurses are able to key in the vaccines they need to address H1N1 cases. Stark Mangione (2004) propose the introduction of modern tools and processes such as â€Å"eSourcing, eAuctions, RF Technologies, Automated Data Retrieval† (p. 13) among others in addressing efficiency of HSCM. Research and Development in the Industry The hospital industry in KSA is ill equipped when it comes to research and development. This is especially so considering that H1N1 keeps evolving into new strains that vary from one country to the other based on the p revailing factors. KSA cannot depend on other countries to invent new vaccines for them to deal with the crisis. Neither should the government expect the citizens to travel in search of drugs in hospitals from other countries. Supply chain management applies here when it comes to the manufacture and importation of research equipments for the hospitals. The supply chain management system can be used to make sure that the scientists working in various referral and research hospitals in this country have the right equipment and the right supplies to carry out the research.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Supply Chain Interruptions After the first case of H1N1 infection was recorded, many companies closed down businesses to avoid the spread of infections for example in Mexico where it is believed to have started. This interrupted the supply chain management systems in hospitals because goods imported from Mexico could not be found. Most hospitals in Saudi Arabia rely on goods and services from other countries around the world. This interruption in the supply chain system made hospitals in this country incapable of fighting the epidemic. Supply Chain Management systems in hospitals should be modified such that they are able to deal with such interruptions. In other words, the supply chain management system should be versatile enough to overcome the challenges brought about by interruptions. Principles of SCM in KSA Hospitals Segmenting Customers Based on their Needs This is basically identifying your customers’ needs and being able to provide all the goods and services they nee d in a one stop shop fashion in order to maximize benefits. In other words, this means that the supply chain management in hospitals should be able to cater for all the needs of the client from one platform if possible. For example, the supply chain management system should be able to provide the scientist in the hospital with the equipments they need to carry out the research as well as distributing the vaccines developed by these scientists to the patients in the hospital. Customizing the Logistics Network Some hospitals have modified their logistics network in such a way that it can only address a single issue. This is for example modifying the supply chain management system in such a way that it addresses only the supply and distribution of drugs only. It is noted that this may not be an effective way of providing goods and services to the hospitals. It is also not the best way to maximize profits for the hospitals. The hospitals can provide services that go hand in hand, comple menting each other. For example, manufacturing and delivering H1N1 vaccines instead of importing them, manufacture of hospital beds, using locally available materials to build more operating rooms among others. Forecasting Demand and Planning Accordingly Understanding your customers, making reasonable assumptions and using various measuring techniques to gauge the demand for the services and goods by the customers are important. This will help in forecasting the demand of certain goods and services thereby making it possible to plan on how to deliver them. For example, the supply chain management experts in the hospitals are able to determine the demand for influenza drugs in a given season. With this forecast, the hospital will then make plans to ensure that the drugs are available when needed. Managing Sources of Supplies To maximize profits, hospitals should endeavor to pay as little as possible for supplies. This means that they should make efforts to reduce the costs of the sup plies. Most hospitals have no idea how to manage their supply sources. This is especially so considering that such hospitals fail to keep track of the raw materials bought and where they have been sourced from. Supply chain management systems can address this by identifying the sources of the materials and keeping track of the costs incurred in the process. Recommendations Putting the Principles into Practice From studies conducted in the past, it was concluded that there is no single hospital in Saudi Arabia that has succeeded in the supply chain management and logistics industry. Most hospitals blame this on the complexity of supply chain management industry and to the inability of the industry to carry out improvements. The industry is still facing problems and especially so in dealing with epidemics like H1N1. There is need to implement strategies in order to put the above principles into practice. This way, the country and the supply chain management fraternity would have made efforts to address the crisis once and for all. Transformation is Difficult The first thing that experts in supply chain management systems in hospitals should realize is that transformation is a difficult and long process. Normally, people resist change and this becomes a problem when it is felt that there is a need to form a completely different supply management system. This is as opposed to improving the existing supply and management system. The only way to undergo a successful and smooth transformation is by informing the affected people what you are intending to do and how you will do it. You should also inform them how the changes will affect their lives. Try also to encourage the participation of companies and members of the community by letting them try the new methods to see how effective they are to the hospital. In the process, the uncertainty surrounding the change will be a thing of the past. To this end, Stark Mangione (2004: p.9) argue that there is a disconnection between the people who are purchasing hospital supplies (such as managers) and those who are using the (such as physicians). This disconnection should be addressed by involving everyone in the decision making process. Planning in Advance Supply chain managers in hospitals should keep in mind that planning in advance is paramount in any project. The risks, maladjustments, shortcomings and positive attributes of the project should be considered. This is especially so due to the fact that we are dealing with an epidemic which is very important. In order to help people embrace change, it is important to take into consideration all the factors that have been identified in this paper. This will lead to a successful and effective supply chain management system in KSA hospitals. Conclusion There is a correlation between the improvement of supply chain management systems and financial benefits. In Saudi Arabia, not only will an improved industry help in lowering the cases of H1N1 infections , but there is also the economic aspect of it. This is where the economy will improve due to a healthy and productive work force. The urgency to fight the endemic is increasing given that there is need to safeguard the health of all citizens. References Almazroa, M. A., Memish, Z. A., Alwadey, A. M. (2010). Pandemic influenza A (H1N1) in Saudi Arabia: Description of the first one hundred cases. Annals of Saudi Medicine, 30(1): 11-14. Arizona State University. (2010). Reducing healthcare costs through supply chain management. Web. Chandra, C. Grabis, G. (2007). Supply chain configuration: Concepts, solutions and applications. New York: Springer Science. DeScioli, D. T. (2001). Differentiating the hospital supply chain for enhanced performance. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, June 2001. Parray, S. H., Kadri, S. M. (2007). Supply chain management in healthcare sector-Role of logistics. Indian Journal for the Practicing Doctor, 4(1): 3-4. Stark, E., Mangione, T. (2004). Top i ssues facing the hospital supply chain today. Healthcare Purchasing News, November 2004. This report on Supply Chain Management in Hospitals and H1N1 Crisis in KSA: A was written and submitted by user KittyPryde to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

A review and evaluation of a literary text chosen by the student for an audience unfamiliar with it. Steinbeck - THE PEARL

A review and evaluation of a literary text chosen by the student for an audience unfamiliar with it. Steinbeck - THE PEARL -meant to be a short reviewJohn Steinbeck's "The Pearl" said to be "a brutal story with flashes of beauty" by the author himself, is a rather depressing novella about wealth and the evil it attracts despite those wanting to use it for the greater good.Written in 1944, it was influenced and inspired by a number of sources. The basic plot was adapted from the "Sea of Cortez" an earlier narrative Steinbeck wrote during the spring of 1940, an idyllic period of his life, when he and a friend sailed around the Baja region on the west coast of America. Steinbeck also used his own experiences and opinions in "The Pearl". After the success of "Grapes of Wrath" Steinbeck was subjected to hate mail, FBI scrutiny and slanderous criticism because of the revolutionary way he exposed the harsh reality of the imbalance of wealth in American society. This backlash of fame and fortune sent Steinbeck on a personal quest where he had to come to terms with what being wealthy and famous meant and he reali sed that he was dissatisfied with the growing dog-eat-dog capitalistic American attitude, the materialism that stemmed from it and as well as the pressure to support a system i.e132 Central Avenue, Salinas, California, the home ...the American government and society, that oppressed the poor. As a result of his personal questioning in addition to his more simplistic previous attempt, Steinbeck laid the foundation for "the Pearl". Through his story Steinbeck brings to light themes such as the human instinct of greed or selfishness, the corrupting influences of wealth, the advantages the wealthy have over the poor, importance of family or community and fighting for one's dreams."The Pearl" is often seen to be parable-like or allegorical in nature because of the morality underlying the story. However, being allegorical in...

Assignment 1 Scope & WBS Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

1 Scope & WBS - Assignment Example is paper is essentially a document that entails the ideas obtained from the city residents regarding suggestion on the best way to create a green space in a low-income neighborhood. The paper presents a scope statement and a WBS for the project. To create a green space, specifically a playground from an abandoned ground, the size of a city block. This site has been used as a general dumping ground for many years. The project cost is estimated at $200,000. The green space should not be in a position to encourage other social evils such as crime as assumed with many city spaces around the world. Instead, it should be open enough to promote security and protection among families within the neighborhood. In this paper, WBS is used in decomposing the green space project into much smaller components. In this case, it involves hierarchical as well as incremental decomposition of the green space project into phases. The end objective is used to start the WBS with a successive subdivision of the efforts required in achieving the project objectives. The WBS for the green space project is as shown in figure 1 below. The key phases in the project are designing, funding, and maintenance. The government will mobilize the funding process from the funding organizations. The source of finances in this case includes funds from financial institutions, government taxes, and city revenues among others. The funding process is based on the budget planning, which is created from the cost estimates that are established from the project’s cost considerations. Regarding the design, it can be perfected by incorporating both residents, and experts’ ideas. The experts would base their design decisions on the previous land use, its location, and the ideas provided by the residents. Once the project is completed, it has to be maintained with the assistance from city authorities who would incorporate both volunteers from the local communities and permanent employees. Green spaces form a

Lesson Planning Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Lesson Planning - Assignment Example It is important to for the students to understand the constitution amendments in the US. This is because it will help the students understand the rights and duties that they are entitled to ones they become citizens. It is also important for the students to know that the constitution amendments will help to strengthen the US government and to help the US citizens not to let other people control them. This topic will help the students to reflect and to rethink about what is actually needed from them when they become Citizens. Question 2 The lesson plan that is ideal in teaching the amendments of the United States constitution is the Understanding by Design template (UDB). The reason why the UBD is selected is that it will help the teacher in establishing goals of his or her lesson plan, which will make the students understand better. The UDB lesson template allows the teacher to have essential questions that helps in giving the students skills and knowledge. The template has a perform ance task description that helps in checking the performance tasks that will help the students to demonstrate the desired understanding of the topic. The lesson plan template allows the teacher to give tests, quizzes, observations and academic prompts that will help the teacher see whether he or she has achieved the desired results. The Understanding by Design template will be the most effective to teach the constitution amendments in the United States because it will help in engaging the students in the study, which will lead to better understanding of the topic. Lesson plan Understanding by design Stage 1-desired results Established goal – The teacher’s goal is to make the students understand Article V of the constitution, which highlights at what circumstances the constitution to be amended. The teacher will teach the students what percentage of the Houses can make the constitution be amended. The teacher will let the students know that the constitution is amended w hen it is ratified by three quarter of the legislatures of several states. The students will also be taught that constitution can be amended if it is ratified by three quarters of the Conventions, or congress may propose the mode of ratification. The students should be in position to explain, what constitution amendment is and at what terms can a constitution be amended (Wiggins & Tighe,1998). Understanding- The teacher will try to ensure that every student understands the Article V of the constitution. This will be achieved by the teacher moving at a slow rate, which will aim at teaching every student in the class including the slow learners. The teacher will enhance this by repeating his points well and by asking general questions, randomly. The general random questions will be asked to the bright, average and poor students, which will help the teacher in accessing how the students have understood the lesson (Wiggins & Tighe, 1998). Related misconception – The teacher will make sure that the students understand that no state that will be deprived its equal suffrage they have in the state without its consent. The teacher will also make the students understand that the mode of ratification that the congress proposes can only take place if there is no amendment made prior to the year 1888. Essential questions – What is constitution amendment? What percentage of the congress of the Houses is required for the constitution to be amended ? Knowledge- Students will understand the constitution amendment. The students will understand the circumstances under which the constitution will be amended. The students wil

A computed tomography

A computed tomography 1. Introduction One of the most used techniques in the imagiology field is called Computed Tomography (CT), a method to acquire slices of the body based on the attenuation of X-rays. This monograph will try to compile the most important information about CT, namely its history, physical principles, fundamental instrumentation, data acquisition and processing techniques, as well as its applications. Firstly, a brief tour through the history of the technique will be taken, while some of the most important achievements will be referred. The starting point will be the discovery of the X-rays, then passing through the creation of the first CT scanner and the development of data analysis and processing algorithms. Then, a concise revision of the evolution of the scanners will be done, delineating the different generations of scanners and the key features of each one. In order to understand how an object can be scanned by this technique, a review of the physical concepts that constitute the basis of CT will be done. More precisely, we will discuss the attenuation of radiation while passing through objects. A short description of how X-rays interact with matter and the concept of linear attenuation coefficient will be discussed. The instrumentation needed for CT will shortly be referred, in particular the most important components of a CT scanner will be briefly explained. As data acquired by the scanners are not displayed in the way they are obtained, we will afterward explain the most used methods to process and analyze the great amount of information acquired by the CT detectors. The process of creating a scale to represent data the CT numbers will subsequently be overviewed, in order to understand how images are created and shown to the doctors. A description of how CT allows to distinguish different anatomical structures and how it permits to see just the structures we want will also be done. After that, an enumeration of some of the many clinical applications of CT will be done, knowing at the start that it will be impossible to list all the applications, reason why just a few will be referred. Besides, it is not the main goal of this monograph, although it is essential to understand the crucial importance of CT in the medicine field. Finally, we will try to conjecture about the future of CT, specifically what it can be improved and what are the actual challenges for this technique and how it can be overcame. This monograph is part of the Hospital and Medical Instrumentation course and pretends to be an overall view of CT, reason why there is not exhaustive detail in each section (for more detail in the approached topics, please read the references). 3-Dimensional reconstruction techniques will not be discussed because it is the topic of another group. Incisive instrumentation will not be exploited because it not exploited in the course as well. 2. Historical Background The history of CT started with the discovery of X-rays in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, which gave him the Physics Nobel Prize in 1901. During 1917, the Austrian mathematician Johann Radon developed a study in which he demonstrated that making several projections in different directions of a material and recreating its associated pattern, it was possible to obtain a slice where one could characterize different densities of the material. The idea of using these mathematical methods to create images of slices of the human body in radiographic films was proposed by the Italian radiologist Alessandro Vallebona in 1930. Between 1956 and 1963, the physicist Allan Cormack developed a method to calculate the distribution of absorbed radiation in the human body based on transmission measurements, which allowed to detect smaller variations in absorption. [2], [3], [4] In the year of 1972, Sir Godfrey Hounsfield (who won the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology in 1979, shared with Cormack) invented the first CT scanner in United Kingdom when he was working at EMI Company, which, at the time, was actually best known for its connection to the music world. The original prototype, called EMI Scanner, recorded 160 points for each projection in 180 different angles (with steps of 1 °) and each slice took 5 minutes to be acquired. A 180160 matrix was then constructed with these data, which took 2 and half hours to be analyzed until the final 2D-images could be visualized. The first types of scanners required the patients head to be immerged in a water-filled container in order to reduce the difference of X-rays attenuation between the rays that crossed the skull and the ones that only crossed the environment, because the detector had a small range of intensities that it could measure. [5], [6] During the subsequent years, CT scanners increased its complexity, and based on that evolution, we can distinguish five generations of machines that will be discussed in the next section (Section 3). Later, in 1989, it was developed a new technique in which data acquisition was done continuously the spiral CT scanning using the movement of the platform where the patient was lying. [4] Nowadays, CT machines have obviously superior performances than the prototypes of the 70s. In fact, several rows of detectors have been added which now allows registration of multiple slices at the same time the multislices scanners. These improvements allowed to represent data in 10241024 matrixes, which have a 1 megapixel pixel resolution. [7], [8] 3. Evolution of CT Scanners Over the time, the fundamentals of data acquisition and the key characteristics of the machines changed in many ways. This fact, allow us to split the evolution of the CT scanners in five generations. 3.1 First Generation Parallel Beam The first technique implemented in CT commercial machines consisted of the emission of a parallel X-ray beam that passed through the patient until it reached a detector located on the opposite side. Both X-ray and detector were place in the edge of a ring with the patient as the center. The X-ray source, as well as the detector, suffered a linear translation motion to acquire data from all maters directions. Then, the X-ray tube and the detector, was rotated about 1 °, having the patient as isocenter, and a new beam was emitted and the movement of translation restarted. This process was repeated until it reached 180 ° and, for each cycle of emitted beams, 160 projections of the material on analysis were recorded. The highly collimated beam provided excellent rejection of scattered radiation in the patient. At this point, the most used image reconstruction technique was the backprojection. Later in this work (Section 6) we will explain the techniques used in reconstruction. The ti me needed for data acquisition was extremely long (5 minutes per slice), due to technological limitations. [8] 3.2 Second Generation Fan beam In the second generation, the collimated beam was replaced by a fan X-ray beam and the simple detector was replaced by a linear array of detectors. This advance resulted in a shorter scan time, although this technique still continued to use a coupled source-detector translation motion. At the same time, the algorithms used to reconstruct the slice images became more complicated. Because of the vast amount of time needed to acquire data, both the first and second generations of scanners were limited to head and extremities scans, because those were the regions of the body that could remain immobilized during the long scan time. [9], [2], [8] 3.3 Third generation Rotating detectors The third generation of scanners emerged in 1976. In this generation, the fan beam was large enough to completely contain the patient, which made the translation movement redundant and the scanner commenced to execute only the rotational movement. Such as the fan beam, also the detectors became big enough to record all data of each slice at a time. The detector consisted of a line with hundreds of independent detectors that, like as in the second generation, rotated attached to the X-ray source, which required up to 5 seconds to acquire each slice. The power supply was now made by a slip ring system placed on the gantry, which allowed to continually rotate it without the need to reverse the rotating motion to untwist the power cables used before, as it was needed after each rotation in first and second generations. [2], [8] 3.4 Fourth generation Fixed detectors This generation was implemented in the late 70s and its innovation was a stationary ring of detectors that surrounded the patient. In this case, only the X-ray beam had movement. The ring consisted of a 600 to 4800 independent detectors that sequentially recorded the projections, so detector and source were no longer associated. However, detectors were calibrated twice during each rotation of the X-ray source, providing a self-calibrating system. Third generation systems were calibrated only once every few hours. In the fourth generation systems, two detectors geometries were used. The first one consists of a rotating fan beam inside the fixed ring of detectors and the second one has the fan beam outside the ring. These technological advances provided a reduction of the scan times to 5s per image and slice spacing below 1 mm. Both third and fourth generations are available in market and both have success in medical activities. [8], [2] 3.5 Fifth Generation Scanning electron beam The innovation of the fifth generation of CT scanners (early 80s) was a new system of X-ray source. While the ring of detectors remains stationary, it was added a new semicircular strip of tungsten and one electron gun which is placed in the patient alignment. By directing this electron beam to the anode of the tungsten strip, the release of X-ray radiation is induced. This method results in a no moving parts system, i.e. no mechanical motion is needed to record data because the detectors completely surround the patients and the electronic beam is directed electronically. The four target rings and the two detector banks allow eight slices to be acquired at the same time, which reduce the scan time and, consequently, the motion artifacts. This fact led to the reduction of scan time to between 33 and 100 ms, which is sufficient to capture images of the heart during its cardiac cycle, reason why it is the most used in diagnostic of cardiac disease. For that reason, this is also called U ltrafast CT (UFCT) or Cardiovascular CT (CVCT) Because of the continuous scan, special adjustments in the algorithm are needed to reduce image artifacts. [2], [8], [9] 3.6 Spiral Scanners The idea of creating a spiral CT came with the need for scans of 3-Dimensional images. This system to acquire 3-Dimensional CT images was born in the early 90s and consists of a continue translation movement of the table which supports the patient. This technique is based on the third generation of machines and allows scan times of the abdomen to be reduced from 10 minutes to 1 minute, which reduces the motion artifacts. Besides, a 3-Dimensional model of the organ under study can be reconstructed. The most complex innovation of this technique consists of the data processing algorithms, because they must consider the spiral path of X-ray beam around the patient. Technically, this was possible only due to the slip ring system implemented on the third generation of scanner. [9], [8], [10] 3.7 Cone beam After the development of new techniques, detectors, methods and algorithms, nowadays the question is: How many slices can we acquire at same time?. The answer to this question lies in the placement of several rows of detectors and the transformation of a fan beam X-ray to a 3-Dimensional cone beam. Nowadays, manufacturers have already placed 64 rows of detectors (multislice systems) and the image quality reached high levels. Moreover, the completely scan of a structure takes now about 15 seconds or even less. [2] 4. Physical Principles The basic principle of CT is measuring the spatial density distribution of a human organ or a part of the body. It is similar to conventional X-ray, in which an X-ray source of uniform intensity is directed to the patient and the image is generated by the projection of the X-rays against a film. The X-rays are emitted with a certain intensity I0 and they emerge on the other side of the patient with a lower intensity I. The intensity decreases while crossing the patient, because radiation interacts with matter. More precisely, X-rays used in CT are of the order of 120kV and, with that energy (120 keV), they interact with tissues mainly by photoelectric (mostly at lower energies) and Compton effects (at higher energies), although they can also interact by coherent scatter, also called Rayleigh scatter (5% to 10% of the total interactions). Photoelectric effect consists of the emission of an electron (photoelectron) from the irradiated matter caused by the absorption of the X-rays energy by an inner electron of the medium. In Compton effect, a X-ray photon interacts with an outer electron of matter and deviates its trajectory, transferring part of its energy to the electron, which is then ejected. In coherent scatter, the energy of the X-ray is absorbed by the tissue causing the electrons to gain harmonic motion and is then reradiated in a random direction as a secondary X-ray. [10], [11], [12], [13], [14] CT X-rays are not monoenergetic, but for now, to simplify the understanding of this concept, we will consider them monoenergetic. When an X-ray (as well as other radiation) passes through a material, part of its intensity is absorbed in the medium and, as a consequence, the final intensity is lower than the initial one. More precisely, the Beers Law states that intensity transmitted through the medium depends on the linear attenuation coefficient of the material  µ if we consider that we are in presence of a homogeneous medium and the thickness of the material x according to the following expression: The problem with conventional radiographs is that it only provides an integrated value for  µ along the path of the X-ray, which means that we have a 2-Dimensional projection of a 3-Dimensional anatomy. As it can be easily understood, all the structures and organs at the same level will appear overlapped in the image. As a consequence, some details cannot be perceived and some organs may not be entirely seen. For example, it is very hard to see the kidneys in a conventional radiography because the intestines appear in front of them. [15], [16], [11] Moreover, as there are many values of (typically one for each point of the scanned part of the body), it is not possible to calculate their values with one singe measure. However, if measures of the same plane by many different directions are made, all the coefficients may be calculated, and that is what CT does. As Figure 4 shows, a narrow X-ray beam that is produced by the source in the direction of a detector, which means that only a narrow slice of the body is imaged and the value of intensity recorded by the detector depends on all the material crossed by the X-ray in its way. That is the reason why it is called tomography it derives from the Greek tomos which means to cut or section. Many data of X-ray transmission through a plane of an object (an organ or a party of the body) from several directions are recorded and are then used to reconstruct the object by signal processing techniques. These techniques will be discussed later in this monograph (Section 6). The tightly colli mated X-ray beam ensures that no significant scatter is present in order to assure a low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), a necessary premise to obtain a faithful image of the scanned object. For that reason, unlike conventional tomography, in CT, patients structures located outside the area that is being imaged do not interfere. [17], [9], [12] 5. Instrumentation The X-ray system is composed by an X-ray source, collimators, detectors and a data-acquisition system (DAS). X-ray source is undoubtedly the most important part, because it is what determines the quality of the image. [10], [8] 5.1 The X-ray source The basis of the X-ray source (called X-ray tube) is to accelerate a beam of electrons between two electrodes against a metal target and is shown in Figure 5. The cathode is a coiled tungsten filament, which is crossed by a current which causes the filament to heat up. At high temperatures (2220 °C), the tungsten releases electrons, a process called thermionic emission. A 15 to 150 kV potential difference is applied between the cathode and the anode, which forces the released electrons to accelerate towards the anode. [10] When the electrons hit the anode, they produce X-rays by two ways. On the one hand, when an electron passes near the tungsten nucleus, it is deflected by an attractive electric force (because the nucleus is positively charged and the electron has a negative charge) and loses part of their energy as X-rays. As there are an enormous number of possible interactions and each one leads to a partial loss of kinetic energy, the produced X-rays have a great range of energies, as Figure 5 shows. This process is called bremsstrahlung (i.e. braking radiation). On the other hand, if an electron from the cathode hits and penetrates an atom of the anode, it can collide with an inner electron of it, causing the electron to be ejected and the atom to have a hole, which is filled by an outer electron. The difference of binding energy of these two electrons is released as an X-ray. This process is called characteristic radiation, because its energy depends on the binding energy of the electrons, which is characteristic of a given material. [10], [9], [15] The tube current represents the number of electrons that pass from the cathode to the anode per unit of time. Typical values for CT are from 200 up to 1000 mA. The potential difference between the electrodes is generally of 120 kV, which produces an energy spectrum ranging from 30 to 120 keV. The tube output is the product between the tube current and the voltage between the electrodes and it is desired to have high values because that permits a shorter scan time, which reduces the artifacts due to movement (such as for heart scans). [10], [8] Production of X-rays in these tubes is an inefficient process and most of the power supplied to the tube is converted in heating of the anode. So, a heat exchanger is needed to cool the tube. This heat exchanger is placed on the rotating gantry. Spiral CT in particular requires high cooling rates of the X-ray tube and high heat storage capacity. [8] 5.2 Collimators The electron beam released from the source is a dispersed beam, normally larger than the desired field-of-view (FOV) of the image. Usually, the fan beam width is set for 1 to 10 mm (although recent CT scanner allow submilimetric precision), with determines the width of the imaged slice. The collimator is placed between the source and the patient and is composed by lead sheets to restrict the beam just to the required directions. An X-ray beam larger than the FOV leads to a larger number of X-rays emitted than the ones needed to the scan and that has two problems: the radiation dose given to the patient is increased unnecessarily; and the number of Compton-scattered radiation increases. [10], [8] 5.3 Antiscatter grids An ideal CT system only with primary radiation (x-rays emitted from the source) reaching the detector does not exist and Compton scatter is always present. As this scatter is randomly distributed and has no useful information about the distribution of density of the scanned object, it just contributes to the reduction of image contrast and should be minimized to the maximum. This, because unlike photoelectric effect, Compton effect has a low contrast between tissues. As referred above, collimators are useful to limit the X-ray beam to the FOV. However, even with a collimator, 50% to 90% of the radiation that reaches the detector is secondary radiation. To reduce the Compton scatter, antiscatter grids can be placed between the detector and the patient. [10] An antiscatter grid consists of strips of sheets oriented parallel to the primary radiation direction combined with a support of aluminum, which drastically reduces the scatter radiation that has not the direction of the primary one, as illustrated in Figure 6. In order to not lower the image quality because of the grid shade, the strips should be narrow. There is, however, a tradeoff between the reduction of scatter radiation (that improve the image contrast) and the dose that must be given to the patient to have the same number of detected X-rays. [10] 5.4 Detectors At the beginning, single-slice CT scanners with just one source and one detector were used. However, these took much time to acquire an image, reason why the evolution brought us single-source, multiple-detector machinery and multislice systems. The third and fourth generations added a wider X-ray fan beam and a larger number of detectors to the gantry (typically from 512 to 768), which permitted to acquire more information in a smaller time. The detectors used in CT must be highly efficient to minimize the dose given to the patient, have a large dynamic range and be very stable over the time and over temperature variations inside the gantry. Three factors contribute to overall efficiency: geometric efficiency (fraction of the total area of detector that is sensitive to radiation), quantum efficiency (the fraction of incident X-rays that is absorbed to contribute to signal) and conversion efficiency (the ability to convert the absorbed X-rays into electrical signal). These detectors can be of two types (shown in Figure 7): solid-state detectors or gas ionization detectors. Solid-state detectors consist of an array of scintillating crystals and photodiodes, while gas ionization detectors consist of an array of compressed gas chambers to which is applied a high voltage to gather ions produced by radiation in inside the chamber. The gas is kept under a high pressure, to maximize interactions between X-rays and gas molecules, which produce electro-ion pairs. [10], [8] 5.5 Data-Acquisition System The transmitted fraction of the incident X-ray intensity (I/I0 in equation 1) can be as small as 10-4, reason why DAS must be very accurate over a great range. The role of DAS is to acquire these data and then encode it into digital values and transmit these to computers for reconstruction to begin. DAS make use of many electronic components, such as precision preamplifiers, current-to-voltage converters, analog integrators, multiplexers and analog-to-digital converters. The logarithmic step needed in equation 3 to get the values of  µi can be performed with an analog logarithmic amplifier. Data transfer is a crucial step to assure speed to the whole process and used to be done by direct connection between DAS and the computer. However, with the appearance of rotating scanners in third and fourth generations, these transfer rate, which is as high as 10 Mbytes/s is now accomplished by optical transmitters placed on the rotating gantry that send information to fixed optical receivers. [8] 5.6 Computer system The data acquisition of the projections, the reconstruction of the signal, the display of the reconstructed data and the manipulation of tomographic images is possible by computer systems used to control the hardware. Current systems consist of 12 processors which achieve 200 MFLOPS (million floating-point operations per second) and can reconstruct an image of 10241024 pixels in less than 5 seconds. [8] 6. Signal Processing and Analyzing Techniques As data are acquired in several directions (e.g. with increments of 1 ° or even less) and each direction is split in several distinct points (e.g. 160 or more), at least 28 800 points are stored, which means that there must be efficient mathematical and computational techniques to analyze all this information. A square matrix representing a 2-Dimensional map of the variation of X-ray absorption with the position is then reconstructed. There are four major techniques to analyze these data, which we will discuss subsequently. [12] 6.1 Simultaneous linear equations As it was referred above (Section 4), there is a measure of for each pixel, which means that modern CT scanners deal with 1 048 576 points for each slice (nowadays the matrixes used are 10241024). As a result, to generate the image of one single slice, a system of at least 1 048 576 equations must be solved (one equation for each unknown variable), which means that this technique is totally unusable. In fact, imagine that in 1967, Hounsfield built the first CT scanner, which took 9 days to acquire the data of a single slice and 21 hours to compute the equations (and by the time, the matrix had only 28 000 entries). Besides, nowadays CT scanners acquire about 50% more measures than it would be needed in order to reduce noise and artifacts, which would require even more computational resources. [16], [11], [8] 6.2 Iterative These techniques try to calculate the final image by small adjustments based on the acquired measures. Three major variations of this method can be found: Algebraic Reconstruction Technique (ART), Simultaneous Iterative Reconstruction Technique (SIRT) and Iterative Least-Squares Technique (ILST). These variations differ only in the way corrections are made: ray-by-ray, pixel-by-pixel or the entire data simultaneously, respectively. In ART as an example, data of one angular position are divided into equally spaced elements along each ray. Then, these data are compared with analogous data from another angular position and the differences between X-ray attenuation are added equally to the fitting elements. Basically, for each measure, the system tries to found out how each pixel value can be modified to agree with the particular measure that is being analyzed. In order to adjust measures with pixel values, if the sum of the entries along one direction is lower than the experimental measure for that direction, all the pixels are increased. Otherwise, if the sum of the entries is higher than the measured attenuation, pixels are decreased in value. By repeating this iterative cycle, we will progressively decrease the error in pixels, until we get an accurate image. ART was used in the first commercial scanner in 1972, but it is no longer used because iterative methods are usually slow. Besides, this method implies th at all data must be acquired before the reconstruction begins. [9], [16] 6.3 Filtered backprojection Backprojection is a formal mathematical technique that reconstructs the image based only on the projection of the object onto image planes in different directions. Each direction is given the same weight and the overall linear attenuation coefficient is generated by the sum of attenuation in each X-ray path that intersects the object from different angular positions. In a simpler manner, backprojection can be constructed by smearing each objects view back trough the image plane in the direction it was registered. When this processed is finished for all the elements of the anatomic section, one obtains a merged image of the linear attenuation coefficients, which is itself a crude reconstruction of the scanned object. An illustration of this technique is represented in Figure 8. By its analysis, it is also clear that the final image is blurred, which means that this technique needs a little improvement, which is given by filtered backprojection. [12], [9], [16] Filtered backprojection is therefore used to correct the blurring resultant from simple backprojection. It consists of applying a filter kernel to each of the 1-Dimensional projections of the object. That is done by convolving a deblurring function with the X-ray transmission data before they are projected. The filter removes from data the frequencies of the X-ray responsible for most of the blurring. As we can see in Figure 8, the filter has two significant effects. On the one hand, it levels the top of the pulse, making the signal uniform within it. On the other hand, it negatively spikes the sides of the pulse, so these negative neighborhoods will neutralize the blurring effect. As a result, the image produced by this technique is consistent with the scanned object, if an infinite number of views and an infinite number of points per view are acquired. [16], [9] Compared with the two previous methods this process has also the advantage that reconstruction can begins at the same time that data are being acquired and that is one of the reasons why it is one of the most popular methods nowadays. [9] 6.4 Fourier reconstruction The last signal processing technique that will be discussed in this monograph is the Fourier reconstruction which consists of analyzing data in the frequency domain instead of the spatial domain. For this, one takes each angular orientation of the X-ray attenuation pattern and decomposes it on its frequency components. In the frequency domain, the scanned image is seen as a 2-Dimensional grid, over which we place a dark line for the spectrum of each view, as Figure 9 shows. To reconstruct the image, one has to take the 1-Dimensional Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). Then, according to the Fourier Slice Theorem, each views spectrum is identical to the values of one line (slice) through the image spectrum, assuring that, in the grid, each view has the same angle that was originally acquired. Finally, the inverse FFT of the image spectrum is used to achieve a reconstruction of the scanned object. 7. Data Display As it was said earlier (Section 6), linear attenuation coefficients give us a crude image of the object. In fact, they can be expressed in dB/cm, but as they are dependent on the incident radiation energy, CT scanning does not use the attenuation coefficients to represent the image, but instead it uses integer numbers called CT numbers. These are occasionally, but unofficially, called Hounsfield units and have the following relation with the linear attenuation coefficients: where  µ is the linear attenuation coefficient of each pixel and  µw is the linear attenuation coefficient of water. This CT number depends clearly on the medium. For human applications, we may consider that CT number varies from -1000 for air and 1000 for bone, with CT number of 0 for water, as it is easily seen from equation 5. [9], [13], [4], [12] The CT numbers of the scanned object are then presented on the monitor as a grey scale. As shown in Figure 10, CT numbers have a large range and as human eye cannot distinguish so many types of grays, it is usually used a window to show a smaller range of CT numbers, depending on what it is desired to see. The Window Width (WW) identifies the range of CT numbers and consequently alters the contrast (as Figures 11 and 12 show), whereas Window Level (WL) sets the centre of the window and, therefore, select which structures are seen. The lowest CT number of the window, which corresponds to the lowest density tissue, is represented in black and the highest Ct number (highest density tissue) is represented in white. 8. Radiation Dose As it can easily be understood, radiation dose given to the patient is dependent on the resolution of the scanner and its contrast, as well as